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Chapter 2: Minerals, Rocks, and Structures

Sections in this Chapter

Chapter Challenge

In this section you will find materials that support the implementation of EarthComm, Chapter 2: Chapter Challenge.

Minerals:

Minerals, NESTA Windows to the Universe
Describes how minerals are divided into different groups based on their chemistry.  Explanations provided in English and Spanish.

How and Where Do Minerals Form?, American Museum of Natural History
Examine images of minerals from exhibits of eight different environments where minerals form. Explains which minerals form in specific environments.

Do We Take Minerals for Granted?, USGS
Overview of the products manufactured from mineral resources.

The Formation of Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks:

Igneous Rocks, Oregon State University
View a slide show about igneous rocks. This is part of a series of lessons called “Rocks and Minerals.”

Igneous Rocks by Setting, USGS
Describes the two major settings relative to the surface of igneous rocks .

Sedimentary Rocks and Sedimentary Rock Classification, Ocean Drilling Program
Describes the major types of sedimentary rocks and the different settings in which they form.

Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks, Dr. Michael Pidwirny, University of British Columbia Okanagan
The properties of sedimentary rocks are introduced in this illustrated section from an online textbook (Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Michael Pidwirny, University of British Columbia Okanagan, Canada). Key terms are linked to definitions in an accompanying glossary.

Metamorphic Rocks, USGS
Explains the processes which form metamorphic rocks, as well as the difference between foliated and non-foliated metamorphic rocks.

Deformation Monitoring, USGS
Description and diagram showing the development of foilation and an example of a foliated rock from USGS Visual Glossary.

Geologic Structures

What Is a Geologic Fault?, Windows to the Universe
Overview of normal, reverse, and strike-slip faults.

Geology of Grand Teton National Park Wyoming, USGS
Geologic map and cross section of the Grand Teton National Park.

Grand Teton National Park 3D Photo Tour,  USGS
Take an online tour of different parts of the park using image collections.

This Dynamic Earth, USGS
Explains how Earth has been shaped by plate-tectonic processes. 

Geologic Time:

Web Geologic Time Machine, University of California Berkeley
Provides links that describe events in Earth’s history from 4.5 billion years ago to the present.

Museum Exhibit Design:

Twenty Impactful Museum Exhibit Designs, Society for Experiential Graphic Design
Views by experts in exhibit design about the most impactful projects since 2000.

Designing Science Museum Exhibits with Multiple Interactive Features: Five Common Pitfalls, Exploratorium
Overview of the factors that contribute to successful science museum exhibits and learning.

Surrounded by Science: Learning Science in Informal Environments, The National Academy of Science
Often designing a good exhibit includes illustrating a surprising or typically hidden aspect of a phenomenon and prompting the learner to reflect on what it means.

Section 1: What are Minerals?

Learning Outcomes

  • Carry out an investigation that examines the crystal shapes of common substances.
  • Carry out an investigation that determines the most useful properties for describing and identifying different minerals.
  • Plan and carry out an investigation in which a variety of mineral specimens are identified according to their physical properties.
  • Obtain information about how the arrangement of atoms in minerals affects their physical properties.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about mineral groups and the environments in which they form, visit the following web sites:

Minerals, NESTA Windows to the Universe
Describes how minerals are divided into different groups based on their chemistry. Written in English and Spanish.

How and Where Do Minerals Form?, American Museum of Natural History
Examine images of minerals from exhibits of eight different environments where minerals form. Explains which minerals form in specific environments.

Mineral Groups, Mineralogical Society of America
Outlines the seven major chemical groups and also several minor ones. This site considers the chemistry behind the crystal structure groups and has excellent images.

Periodic Table, Los Alamos National Laboratory
Provides a refresher on the periodic table of elements including the history and properties of each element.

To learn more about the minerals and elements that make up Earth’s crust, visit the following web sites:

Mineral Images and Source Maps, USGS
Provides an overview of the most common minerals you’ll find in rocks.

Mineral Resources Program, USGS
Articles on many aspects of minerals, such as composition, location, and value.

To learn more about types of minerals, visit the following web sites:

Minerals by Name, The Mineral Gallery
Includes full color images of different minerals along with a description of the physical properties, history of discovery, and more about each mineral.

What is a Mineral?, NESTA Windows to the Universe
Provides a definition for a mineral. Click on the different links to learn about the different mineral types, how minerals are formed, and the physical properties of minerals.

Minerals by Physical and Optical Properties, Mineral Database
Minerals are listed according to hardness, streak, luster, density, and cleavage and fracture. Click on the property to view a mineral list. You can then click on individual minerals to view more information and images.

To learn more about the chemistry and structure of minerals, visit the following web sites:

Minerals, Volcano World
Gives a brief overview of minerals. Includes illustrations to show some of the basic atomic arrangements of different minerals. Also explains how atomic arrangement influences the properties of a mineral.

Minerals by Chemical Composition, Mineralogy Database
Displays a periodic table. Use the search function to find minerals with selected percentages of different elements. Click on the element of interest to open a page that lists all of the minerals that contain that element, sorted by element percent.

American Mineralogist Crystal Structure Database, University of Arizona (NSF-funded)
Lists the different crystal structures of minerals. Click on link to open a new page that uses a drawing to show the arrangement of atoms in each structure.

Section 2: Igneous Rocks and the Geologic History of Your Community

Learning Outcomes

  • Carry out an investigation that determines the most useful properties for describing and identifying different igneous rocks.
  • Carry out an investigation that identifies igneous rock specimens according to their physical properties.
  • Analyze data on a geologic map and legend to locate igneous rocks.
  • Obtain information about how the formation of igneous rocks is connected to plate tectonic processes.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about this topic, visit the following websites:

The Nature of Igneous Rocks

Igneous Rocks,  USGS
View a slide show about igneous rocks. This is part of a series of lessons called “Rocks and Minerals.”

National Parks and Monuments Composed of Igneous Rocks, National Park Service
From Acadia on the Atlantic Coast to Hawaii in the Pacific, explore the sites of past and present volcanic activity.

Magma, Lava, and Igneous Rocks

Magma, National Geographic
Images and descriptions of magma. Includes summaries of magma in the news.

Magma, Lava, Lava Flows, Lava Lakes, etc., USGS
Use the Volcano Hazards glossary to learn more about lava and the hazards associated with lava flows.

Classifying Igneous Rocks

Atlas of Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks, Minerals, and Textures, University of North Carolina
View microscopic images of plutonic rocks (intrusive igneous rocks) and volcanic rocks (extrusive igneous rocks).

Identifying Igneous Rocks, Mesa Community College
Contains an informative chart, pictures, links, and descriptions of the different classifications of igneous rocks.

Igneous Rock Identification Chart, Mineralogical Society of America
Color and texture are one way of classifying igneous rocks. Use this chart to find the name of an igneous rock using simple terms.

Section 3: Sedimentary Rocks and the Geologic History of Your Community

Learning Outcomes

  • Use models that examine the processes that form sedimentary rocks.
  • Carry out an investigation that identifies a variety of sedimentary rock specimens according to their physical properties.
  • Analyze data on a geologic map and legend to locate sedimentary rocks in your region.
  • Obtain information about how the formation of sedimentary rocks is connected to plate tectonic processes.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about each topic, visit the following web sites:

Sedimentary rocks and energy resources:

Fossil Energy Stored in Sedimentary Rocks, Kansas Geological Society
Describes the environments in which fossil fuels are formed.  Go to different pages to see the textures of sandstones and carbonates.

Fossil Energy Stored in Shale and Sand, Bureau of Land Management
Basic information about oil shale and tar sand resources. Includes photos of oil shale and tar sands and associated recovery activities.

Hydrocarbon Reservoir Rocks, University of Calgary
Describes the processes that sedimentary rocks go through to become a hydrocarbon reservoir.

How Coal Is Formed, Kentucky Educational Television and the American Coal Foundation
Webpage and video that gives a brief overview of how coal is formed.

Energy Resources Program, USGS
Use the USGS Energy Glossary to learn more about key terms.

Sedimentary basins:

World Map of Sedimentary Basins, Schlumberger
[Map that shows the locations of onshore and offshore basins.

Maps of Sedimentary Basins in United States, USGS
Follow the links on the page to four figures showing basins of different ages across the country.

Types of Sedimentary Basins, Vancouver Island University
Block diagrams show different kinds of sedimentary basins and their tectonic setting.

Clastic, Chemical, and Organic Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks, USGS
Describes clastic, chemical, and organic sedimentary rocks in simple terms. Illustrations accompany each description and provides links to terms in a glossary.

The Making of Sedimentary Rocks, Columbia University
Part of the schoolyard geology series. This site includes descriptions of each stage in the formation of sedimentary rocks.

Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks, University of British Columbia Okanagan
The properties of sedimentary rocks are introduced in this illustrated section from an online textbook (Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Michael Pidwirny, University of British Columbia Okanagan, Canada). Key terms are linked to definitions in an accompanying glossary.

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks, GeoScience Videos
Video that explains the formation of chemical sedimentary rocks.

Classifying Sedimentary Rocks:

Sedimentary Rocks, Tulane University
Information on the ways sedimentary rocks are classified.

Sedimentary Rocks and Sedimentary Rock Classification, Ocean Drilling Program
Describes the major types of sedimentary rocks and the different settings in which they form.

Structures and Bedforms in Sedimentology, USGS
Provides information, including animations, on structures in sedimentary rocks such as cross bedding and what they indicate about past currents.

Section 4: Metamorphic Rocks and the Geologic History of Your Community

Learning Outcomes

  • Carry out an investigation that identifies metamorphic rock specimens according to their physical properties.
  • Use a model that examines how rocks change their shape during metamorphosis.
  • Analyze data on a geologic map and legend to locate metamorphic rocks in your region.
  • Obtain information about how the formation of metamorphic rocks is connected to plate tectonic processes.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about each topic, visit the following web sites:

Formation of metamorphic rocks in the Appalachian Mountains:

Summary of the Geology of the Southern Appalachians, USGS
Describes the geologic history of the Southern Appalachians. A useful poster shows the tectonic history of the Appalachian Mountains and the opening of the Atlantic Ocean.

Geology of the Appalachian Mountains, Encyclopedia Britiannica
Describes the geologic history and the rock types of various parts of the Appalachian Mountains.

Geology of the Southern Appalachian Mountains, USGS
Describes the events which formed the Southern Appalachian Mountains.

The Geology of the Great Smoky Mountains, USGS
The Great Smoky Mountains are part of the famous Blue Ridge of the Appalachian Mountains. This archived website contains many photos with descriptions of metamorphic rocks in their natural setting.   How hydrothermal alteration leads to the formation of deposits of valuable minerals like gold, silver, and copper:

Copper deposits of the Appalachian States, USGS
Scroll through this pdf to Figures 8 - 10 to learn how copper forms hydrothermally and in other ways during the opening of an ocean basin.

Gold, USGS
Describes the formation of gold deposits.

Hydrothermal Features, USGS
Follow the link to a diagram of hydrothermal features in a typical geysir basin, such as those in the Yellowstone region.

Hydrothermal Alterations and the Formation of Metal Ores in the Sierra Nevada, NASA
Explains how hydrothermal alteration processes result in many metallically rich chemical compositions.

Saturn’s moon: Hydrothermal Activity on Enceladus, NASA
This article talks about the fascinating implications of results from the Cassini mission.

Formation of Metamorphic Rocks:

Metamorphic Rocks, USGS
Explains the processes which form metamorphic rocks, as well as the difference between foliated and non-foliated metamorphic rocks.

Animation of Deformation creating Metamorphic Texture, Dr. Harel Thomas
Provides an overview of how metamorphic rocks form.

Deformation Monitoring, USGS
Description and diagram showing the development of foilation and an example of a foliated rock from USGS Visual Glossary.

Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks, Tulane University
Explains what happens when temperature and pressure deform a rock and includes diagrams.

Metamorphic Rocks in Museums:

Metamorphic Rock Exhibit, American Museum of Natural History, NYC
See the display and examine the accompanying text.

Metamorphic Rock Image Collection, Smithsonian, DC
Excellent photos from the collection of metamorphic rocks, several pages to explore.

Section 5: Structural Geology and Your Community

Learning Outcomes

  • Use a model that illustrates how rock layers appear when they are folded.
  • Use a model that explains the different ways that rock bodies can move relative to each other along a fault.
  • Analyze and interpret structural data on a geologic map and cross section to identify folds and faults in crustal rocks.
  • Obtain information about how the formation of folds and faults is connected to plate tectonic processes.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about each topic, visit the following websites:

Grand Tetons in Wyoming:

Geology of Grand Teton National Park Wyoming, USGS
Geologic map and cross section of the Grand Teton National Park.

Grand Teton National Park 3D Photo Tour,  USGS
Take an online tour of different parts of the park using image collections.

Geology Field Notes - Grand Teton National Park Wyoming, NPS
Describes the geologic history of the Grand Teton National Park.

The Grand Tetons, Penn State
Describes how geologic structures in the Tetons create unstable slopes.  

Careers in Structural Geology:

Careers in the Geosciences, AGI
Overview of the major geoscience disciplines in which geoscientists work, including structural geology.

Job Sectors Geosciences, Geological Soc London
Learn how structural geology is applied to many different sectors of geologic work.

Forces in the Earth’s Crust:

Tectonic Forces, NASA
View a video on the movement of Earth’s plates and the forces between them.

Birth of the Himalaya, NOVA
Learn more about the tallest mountain in the world. This page is part of an entire site dedicated to Mount Everest.

Faults and Folds:

Forces in the Earth, Southern California GPS Network
Simple animations of compression, extension, and shear forces and their effects on rocks.

Structural Geology: Folds and Faults, University of Hawaii
High-level presentation that contains very nice graphics and images that simplify the content.

What Is a Geologic Fault?, Windows to the Universe
Overview of normal, reverse, and strike-slip faults.

Interactive Fault Map of the United States, USGS
Use this interactive map of faults in the US to find relationships between faults and earthquakes.

What is the HayWired Scenario, USGS
The Hayward fault is part of the San Andreas fault system. Learn about what might happen if it went haywire.

Section 6: Interpreting the Geologic History of Your Community

Learning Outcomes

  • Use models and cross sections that explain the basic geologic principles for relative dating of rock layers and structures.
  • Analyze and interpret data on a geologic cross section of an area to describe its geologic history.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about each topic, visit the following web sites:

Radiometric Dating:

Radiometric Time Scale, USGS
Describes the use of radioactivity to determine the geologic ages of rocks.

Radioactive Decay Activity, EPA
How can popcorn be used to model parent and daughter atoms? Find out how geoscientists decide which material to date.

Interpreting Geologic History:

Relative Time Scale, USGS
Describes the development of the basic geologic principles and how they are used to determine the ages of rock layers.

How Do Geologists Know How Old a Rock Is?, Utah Geological Survey
Descriptions of the basic geologic principles and how they can be used to determine the age of a group of rocks.

Laws of Superposition and Crosscutting Relationships, USGS
How do we know if a sill is older or younger than the surrounding layers? Find out here.

The Grand Age of Rocks: The Numeric Ages for Rocks Exposed within Grand Canyon, NPS
Detailed description of the geologic history of the Grand Canyon. Includes pictures of several unconformities that are seen in the Grand Canyon.

The Relative Ages of Rocks, Berkeley
Unravel the relative ages of the rock units in another challenging cross section.

Web Geologic Time Scale, University of California Berkeley
Use the links on the timescale to learn about different periods in Earth’s history from 4.5 billion years ago to the present.

Section 7: Geology of the United States

Learning Outcomes

  • Analyze and interpret data on a geologic map of the United States to determine the different ages and types of bedrock.
  • Construct an explanation for the formation of the major physiographic regions of the United States.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about each topic, visit the following web sites:

The history of development of the Appalachian Mountains:

The Last Volcanic Eruption on the East Coast of the U.S.?, Scientific American
Describes the last volcanic events on the passive margin and why the East Coast continues to exhibit seismic activity.

Bend in the Appalachian Range, University of Rochester
Article the describes ideas about cause of the bend in the Appalachian Mountains between New York and Pennsylvania.

Birth of the Mountains, USGS
Geologic story of the Southern Appalachian Mountains.

The Movement of Continents:

This Dynamic Earth, USGS
Explains how Earth has been shaped by plate-tectonic processes. Includes a section on unanswered questions.

Continents on the Move, NOVA (PBS)
Provides detailed and illustrated pages about how scientists have determined that Earth’s continents are moving.

Continental Movement by Plate Tectonics, University of Hawaii
Build a better understanding of how the surface of the earth has changed over time by the process of plate tectonics.

The PaleoMap Project, Christopher R. Scotese
Illustrates the plate tectonic development of the ocean basins and continents, as well as the changing distribution of land and sea during the past 1,100 million years.

The Geologic History of North America:

Tapestry and Terrain, USGS
Provides a map of the United States that combines geology and topography.

National Parks by Geologic Province, USGS
Survey the map of the United States to find the National Parks within each geologic province.