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Chapter 3: Surface Processes

Sections in this Chapter

Chapter Challenge

In this section you will find materials that support the implementation of EarthComm, Chapter 3: Chapter Challenge.

Bedrock Geology

Florida

Geologic Map of the State of Florida, Florida Geological Survey
Geologic map showing the rock types found in Florida.

Florida’s Geologic History, University of Florida
Describes the geologic terrain of Florida.

Data and Maps, Florida Department of Environmental Protection
Provides links to geologic maps at the county scale.

Basic Central Florida Geology, The Florida Speleological Society
Describes the geology of Florida.

Alaska

Generalized Geologic Map of Alaska, USGS
Geologic map showing the rock types found in Alaska.

Digital Geologic Map of Alaska, USGS
Detailed geologic map provides land users, managers, and scientists geologic information for the evaluation of land use in relation to resource extraction, conservation, natural hazards and recreation.

Ground Water Atlas of the United States - Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, USGS
Describes the geology of Alaska.

Relief and Slopes

Florida

Terraces and Shorelines of Florida, Florida Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Geology
Map showing the terraces and shorelines of Florida.

ArcGIS Relief Data, Florida Department of Environmental Protection
Chose among a variety of data layers in ArcGIS, including contours.

Alaska

Slope Instability Hazards, Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys
Literature on unstable slopes in Alaska.

A Guide to Geologic Hazards in Alaska, Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys
Select from the list to learn about other kinds of geologic hazards in Alaska.

Drainage Basin Geometry

Florida

Sinkholes, Florida Department of Environmental Protection
Describes the karst landforms found in Florida.

Water Resources Data for Florida, USGS
Data on surface water and groundwater in Florida.

Hydrology Research, Florida Department of Environmental Protection
Examines different areas of hydrogeologic research in Florida.

Alaska

Groundwater Related Hazards, Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys
Overview of groundwater supply and movement in Alaska.

Ground Water Atlas of the United States - Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, USGS
Looks at Alaska’s system of runoff and groundwater.

Rivers, Flow Conditions, and Potential for Flooding

Florida

Water Resources Data for Florida, USGS
Data on surface water and groundwater in Florida.

Flooding and Erosion, Florida Department of Environmental Protection
Learn about the three main scenarios where floods occur during major storm events that produce large amounts of rain over short periods of time.

Florida Hazards – Storm Surge Overview, NOAA
Examines storm surges that affect river flooding relevant to Florida.

Alaska

Coastal and River Hazards, Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys
Examines the factors that affect river flooding in Alaska.

Alaska’s Coastal Ecology and Infrastructure, International Arctic Research Center
Examines the factors that affect river flooding in Alaska.

Mass Movements and Subsidence

Florida

Florida Geological Survey - Hazards – Sinkholes, Florida Department of Environmental Protection
Describes the occurrence of sink holes as particular type of mass movement in Florida. Follow links to find specific subsidence reports for different areas.

Sinkholes, Florida Department of Environmental Protection
Examines the occurrence of sinkholes in Florida.

Alaska

Slope Instability Hazards, , Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys
Information on seismic landslides in Anchorage.

Slope Instability: Landslide Tsunami Hazards,, Alaska Earthquake Center
Provides information on landslide tsunamis and how to prepare for them.

Soils and Soil-Related Hazards

Florida

Florida Geological Survey - Hazards - Problem Soils, Florida Department of Environmental Protection
Overview of soil shrinking, swelling, and subsidence in Florida.

Alaska

Permafrost and Periglacial Related Hazards, Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys
Permafrost is not a hazard until it starts to melt. Looks at the geologic hazards associated with permafrost perturbation in Alaska.

Other Factors that Increase Building Risk

Florida

Coastal Erosion and Beaches, Florida Department of Environmental Protection
Looks at the causes of beach erosion and development control in coastal Florida.

Florida Geological Survey - Tectonic History, Florida Department of Environmental Protection
Use ArcGIS to look at the geologic history of Florida and to understand more about this passive margin.

Hydrogeochemistry, Florida Department of Environmental Protection
Examines naturally occurring geochemical hazards in Florida.

An Alaska Earthquake affects Florida’s Groundwater, USGS
Examines the impact of earthquakes and tsunamis on the Atlantic or Gulf Coasts of Florida.

Alaska

Hazards, USGS
Overview of the hazards associated with tectonic plate movements in Alaska. Links also examine flooding and wildfires.

About Alaska’s Volcanoes, Alaska Volcano Observatory
Looks at the hazards associated with Alaska’s numerous volcanoes.

Alaska Earthquake Information Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks
General information on the occurrence of earthquakes in Alaska.

Glacier Hazards, Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys
A variety of glacier hazards exist in Alaska (e.g. jökulhlaups, calving, glacier surge) and many glacier-related processes lead to other (indirect) hazards (e.g. flooding and debris flows).

Section 1: The Water Cycle

Learning Outcomes

  • Carry out an investigation of the amount of heat required to melt ice.
  • Use a model to describe the distribution of water in the hydrosphere.
  • Develop a model to illustrate the processes that move water among Earth’s water reservoirs.
  • Use a quantitative model to describe the rates at which water moves between reservoirs in the water cycle.

Inquiring Further

To calculate the change in volume when water freezes, each student will need:

  • plastic milk jug with a screw-top cap and dimples on the side (small depressions in the plastic)
  • measuring cup (to measure volume)
  • water
  • access to a freezer

To learn more about volcanic eruptions and the water cycle, visit the following web sites:

Ground Water Atlas of the United States, USGS
Click on your region of the map to open a new window that contains links that summarize groundwater resources in the area and information about each of the primary aquifers in that region.

Volcanic Gases the Water Cycle and Climate, USGS
Explains how water is introduced into the atmosphere through volcanic eruptions and is then cycled through the rest of the Earth system.

Gas and Water Chemistry of Magma, USGS
Explains how water the water content of magma affects the explosivity of a volcanic eruption.

To learn more about dating water, and the water cycle visit the following web sites:

Tracing and Dating Young Ground Water, USGS
Reviews the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), tritium (3H), and other chemical and isotopic substances in ground water to date water.

Water and Ice Module, EDinformatics
Compares the atomic structures of water and ice using text, color images, and movies.

The NEW Water Cycle Diagram, USGS
Interactive visual with accompanying lessons on the water cycle.

Natural Processes of Groundwater and Surface water Interaction: The Hydrologic Cycle and Interactions of Ground Water and Surface Water, USGS
Reviews the basics of the water cycle, with a focus on the movement of water between and within ground and surface water reservoirs. Includes several full color illustrations.  

Introduction to the Clean Water Act, EPA
Reviews the Clean Water Act and threats to the nation’s surface water reservoirs. Also includes a FAQ section with advice on finding more information.

Groundwater and Aquifers, EPA
Introduces groundwater terms used in identifying and and evaluating aquifers.

Careers Related to the Hydrosphere and Cryosphere, AGI
Examples of the careers related to these Earth spheres and the background needed to study them.

Section 2: Rivers and Drainage Basins

Learning Outcomes

  • Analyze data on a local topographic map to explain patterns in stream drainage within your community.
  • Analyze data on regional maps and satellite images to determine the location of drainage basins and divides in your region.
  • Obtain information about the interconnections among drainage systems.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about each topic, visit the following web sites:

Water quality issues:

National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program, USGS
The National Water-Quality Assessment Program (NAWQA) provides an understanding of water-quality conditions.  Provides information on how natural features and human activities affect water quality.

River pollution and ecosystems:

Nonpoint Source Pollution, NOAA
Provides an overview of nonpoint and point pollution sources. Describes the effects of pollution sources on bodies of water, such as streams and rivers, and ecosystems.

Watersheds, Flooding, and Pollution[, NOAA]
Describes stream components of a watershed, and the effects of flooding on the spread of pollution.

Dams and river systems:

Edwards Dam and Kennebec Restoration, Natural Resources Council of Maine

Quaker Neck and Cherry Hospital Dam Removals, North Carolina, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Rodman (Kirkpatrick) Dam removal, St. Johns River, Florida, Tampa Bay Times

Glen Canyon Dam - Frequently Asked Questions, Arizona, Bureau of Reclamation

Walla Walla District, Lower Granite Dam, Snake River, Idaho, Army Corp of Engineers

Elwha and Glines Canyon Dams and River Restoration, Elwha River near Port Angeles, Washington, National Park Service

River systems and wastewater treatment:

Earth’s Water: Rivers and the Landscape, USGS
Explains how water flows through streams and rivers and combine to create a watershed.

Mississippi River Delta Basin, The Coastal Wetlands Planning Protection and Restoration Act
The Mississippi River is a fantastic example of how a delta can change overtime. Explore this site to learn how the Mississippi River Delta has changed throughout geologic time.

Water Q&A: Water use at home, USGS
Question and answer segment that explains how water enters and exits a community.

New York City’s Wastewater Treatment System, The City of New York
Describes New York City’s wastewater treatment system, including where water comes from and where it goes.

Wastewater Treatment - Water Use, USGS
Explains what wastewater is as well as how and why it should be treated.

Drainage Basins and Watersheds

What is a Watershed?, NOAA
Defines a watershed and provides an image that shows the parts of a watershed.

Surf Your Watershed, EPA
Identify the watershed your community is located in and obtain an environmental profile of your watershed.

Section 3: Slopes and Landscapes

Learning Outcomes

  • Carry out an investigation of the maximum slope that can be formed by a pile of sand.
  • Carry out an investigation that compares the maximum slope angles formed by various unconsolidated sediments.
  • Analyze contour data on a local topographic map to explain patterns in the slopes of your community.
  • Obtain information about the importance of slopes in land development.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about each topic, visit the following web sites:

Mass Movement:

What is a Landslide?, USGS
Learn about what landslide are, and where and why they occur.

Debris-Flow Hazards in the United States, USGS
Examines different types of debris flows, where they are likely to occur, and steps to take to minimize the damages associated with debris flows.

U.S. Landslide Inventory and Susceptibility Map, USGS
Monitoring is essential for landslide prediction. Contains an interactive map with data related to the monitoring of active and potential landslides.  Examine the following active landslides:

  • Highway 50, California
  • Florida River, CO
  • Johnson Creek Landslide, Coastal Oregon
  • Seattle, Washington
  • Portland, OR
  • Puget Sound, Coastal Bluffs, Washington
  • Woodway, Washington

The Landslide Handbook, USGS
Reviews what makes an area susceptible to landslides and what to do to if you are in a high-risk area, as well as providing links to finding out more about landslides.

Landslide Video Collections, USGS
A compilation of videos from researchers at the USGS who monitor landslides.

Catastrophic mass movements:

Landslide Monitoring Program, California, USGS
Contains data related to the monitoring of an active landslide between Placerville and South Lake Tahoe, California.

Landslide Monitoring Seattle, Washington, USGS
Contains data related to the study and monitoring of a landslide in western Washington. Includes a summary of the data collected, including rainfall, pore pressure, and movement data.

The 2014 Oso Landslide, Washington, USGS
“Gravity never sleeps”. Revisitng the catastrophic landslide from March 22, 2014. Learn what the scientists now know about the event.

Landslide Preparedness, USGS
Learn about the warning signs and what to do before, during, and after a landslide occurs.

Angle of Repose:

Granular Avalanches on Earth and Mars, European Space Union
Compares slopes on Mars to slopes on Earth.  Reviews the physics of the angle of repose of a material.

Reposing Differently on Mars and Earth?, The Sandglass by Michael Welland
A professional geologist considers how martian gravity would affect alluvial fan development on the red planet.

Section 4: High-Gradient Streams

Learning Outcomes

  • Use a model to describe the characteristics of high-gradient streams.
  • Analyze data on a local topographic map to calculate the gradient of a stream in your community.
  • Analyze data for the Mississippi River System to explain the connection between stream gradient, elevation, and discharge.
  • Analyze data for a high-gradient stream in your community to explain the characteristics of its channel, floodplain, and streamflow.

Investigate

To find data on the discharge of rivers in the United States, visit:

Real-Time Water Data for the Nation, USGS
Identify your local river and find data on its discharge, drainage basin area, and stream velocity.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about the Big Thompson, Colorado flood, visit the following websites:

The Big Thompson Canyon Floods of 1976 and 2013, USGS
The Big Thompson Canyon Flood in 1976 was the worst natural disaster in Colorado’s history. Learn about this event and the next deadly event caused by massive rainfall.

Big Thompson Canyon, NASA
Describes the events and conditions that led up to the Big Thompson Canyon flood.

To learn more about this characteristics of high-gradient streams, visit the following websites:

Streams and Drainage Systems, Tulane University
Describes stream-flow dynamics, including shape, gradient, velocity, and discharge.

Nehalem River Watershed Assessment: Channel Habitat Typing, Portland State University
Provides information on the effects that different stream gradients can have on organisms in the stream.

Simple Protocol (Quantified) for Habitat Assessment of Streams, Australian River Authority
A simple protocol for the assessment of river conditions based on stream channel characteristics.

Physical Stream Type Classification, Pennsylvania State Gov. Heritage Commission
Describes variables that influence biological habitat based on physical stream channel characteristics, including gradient. Also has a useful list of biological communities and their commonly associated physical stream types.

Section 5: Low-Gradient Streams

Learning Outcomes

  • Use a model to describe the characteristics of low-gradient streams.
  • Analyze data for a low-gradient stream in your community to explain the characteristics of its channel, floodplain, and streamflow.
  • Obtain information about potential hazards posed by low-gradient streams.

Investigate

To find data on the discharge of rivers in the United States, visit:

Real-Time Water Data for the Nation, USGS
Identify your local river and find data on its discharge, drainage basin area, and stream velocity.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about specific floods, visit the following web sites:

Historical Flooding in the US, USGS
High rainfall and severe flooding: a state of emergency declared in South Dakota and in Iowa.

The Great USA Flood of 1993, NOAA
Describes the causes and damage that resulted from the 1993 Midwest flood.

Red River of the North Flooding – 1997, USGS
Describes the flow conditions and effects from flooding of the Red River of the North in 1997.

April 2001 Mississippi Flood - Spring Snowmelt, NOAA
Provides information on the flooding conditions on the upper Mississippi River basin in 2001.

Sept 2013 Historic Rainfall Floods Colorado, NOAA
In three days of high rainfall, authorities had confirmed six deaths, and more than 1,000 people remained missing in Colorado.

May 2015 Floods in Texas and Oklahoma, NOAA
Learn about how a single storm broke new records for the 1-in-25, -50, -100, even -1000 year events.

August 2016 Louisiana Floods, USGS
Rainfall exceeding 30 inches in Louisiana resulted in record flooding exceeding in $8 billion in damages.

April/May 2017 Record Flooding Swamps Parts of Missouri, Arkansas, Illinois, The Weather Channel
Provides information on flooding in the midwest and southern U.S.

For more general information on rivers and floods, visit the following web sites:

Riverbed Model Works like the Real Thing, ScienceMag
Learn how scientists at UC Berkeley were the first to build a scaled down meandering stream. A 30 hours simluation represented 5 to 7 years of real time.

Earth’s Water: Groundwater, USGS
Describes how water gets into the ground.  Also explains what an aquifer is and who uses ground water.  Provides information on how water is taken out of the ground.

The Hydrologic Cycle and Interactions  of Ground Water and Surface Water, USGS
Provides information about ground water and surface water interactions.

Causes of Floods, Tulane Univ.
Floods have been occurring throughout Earth history.  Find out what causes them.

Options for State Flood Control Policies and a Flood Control Program, Vermont Agency of Natural Resources
This report serves as an example of how one state prepares for floods.

Section 6: Sediments in Streams

Learning Outcomes

  • Use a model to describe how moving water affects particles of sediment in streams.
  • Carry out an investigation to classify sediment from a river in your community according to roundness and particle shape.
  • Carry out an investigation to classify sediment from a stream in your community according to particle size.
  • Use a model to describe the relationship between stream velocity and the movement of particles on a streambed.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about each topic, visit the following web sites:

How streamflow affects sediment size, transport, and deposition:

Experiments with Particle Settling, SERC Carlton
Activity for investigating the settling rate of sediments of different sizes and in different mediums.

Why is Streamflow Important?, EPA
Describes how to investigate stream flow in an outdoor stream.

Stream Processes and Flow Basics, Columbia University
Describes discharge and stream competency using  Hjulstrom’s diagram.

Downstream Changes in River Characteristics, Tulane University
Section on “Changes Downstream” gives an overview of how stream dynamics and particle sizes change downstream.

Sediment clean up after a flood:

Flooding: About Cleaning up Yards and Public Spaces, Rhode Island Department of Health
Provides suggestions for what to do when a public space is covered with floodwater.

After the Flood, University of Missouri
Explains how to clean up flooded areas.

Flood Safety Checklist, American Red Cross
Suggestions for dealing with a home that has been flooded.

Recovery After Flooding, EPA
State and local response agencies are the primary responders for people affected by flooding. This site details what to do after flooding to restore safe conditions.

How sediments in a streambed support plants and animals:

Sediment Transport and Deposition, Fondriest Environmental
Scroll down to the section “Why are Sediment Transport and Deposition Important?” to learn how too much or too little silts, and other sized sediments affect stream ecology.

Why Rivers are Losing Sediment, Yale University
Describes the impact of dams on the natural distribution of sediments and how this effects river ecosystems.

Effects of Sediment on the Aquatic Environment,  USDA
Describes the historical perspective of the effects of silt in rivers on light penetration, temperature adjustment, electrolytes, bottom conditions, and retention of organic matter. Contains useful figures on stream reach, bed materials and use by fish (Table 4) and composition of aquatic organisms by stream number (Figure 8).

Section 7: Soil and Land Use

Learning Outcomes

  • Plan and carry out an investigation that uses a classification system for identifying soil types.
  • Plan and carry out investigations to measure the properties of soil samples.
  • Obtain information about the importance of soil and its conservation as a natural resource.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about each topic, visit the following web sites:

Soil Health:

Soil Facts, USDA, NRCS
Refresher on the soil forming factors and classification of soils. Explanation of the different soil orders including their pronunciation.

Soil Health and Sustainable Practices, USDA, NRCS
By monitoring soil health, a land manager can determine if soil use is sustainable in a particular area.

List of Soil Surveys by State, USDA, NRCS
Click on your state to be linked to your state’s soil office.

Classifying Soils:

Photo Gallery, USDA, NRCS via Flickr
Includes written descriptions and photographs of different soil types as well as a soil distribution map of the United States.

Keys to Soil Taxonomy, USDA, NRCS
Online textbook that covers a wide range of topics, including which soils scientists classify and how they classify them.

What’s in My Soil, USGS
Activity to determine the unique physical characteristics of soil.

Soil Texture Calculator, USDA
Input data from your soil to determine the texture from a tenary plot.

Soil Formation and Horizons (Layers):

Soil Composition Across the US, NASA
Brief summary of how soils form and are distributed.

Soil Health and Ecology Terms Glossary, USDA
Soil health and soil ecology terms described in detail.   

Examination and Description of Soils, USDA, NRCS
Excerpt from the text “Soil Survey Manual”. This very detailed review defines the different soil horizons and transitional zones. Also explains soil horizon nomenclature.

Soil as a Natural Resource:

Soil Quality Management, USDA, NRCS
Examines practices that enhance soil quality.

Soil Quality Management – Urban Land, USDA
Three fact sheets which cover soil erosion and sedimentation on construction sites, urban soil compaction, and heavy metal soil compaction.

Soil Moisture Data from Space NASA
Learn how data from the first NASA satellite mission dedicated to measuring the water content of soils is now being used by the U.S. Department of Agriculture to monitor global croplands and make commodity forecasts.

Soil Resources and Lesson Plans,  Soil Science Society of America
Many valuable resources for educators to cover soils.

Land Capability Classification,  USDA
Data set from 2000 with useful information about erosion of land by type in each state.

Mars Soil and Plants?, NASA vis University of Georgia
Learn how NASA is trying to replicate martian soil to determine its suitability for plant growth.

Section 8: Glaciers and the Landscape

Learning Outcomes

  • Use a quantitative model to describe the factors that affect the volume and movement of a glacier.
  • Use a model that illustrates the constructive and destructive processes of a moving valley glacier.
  • Use a model that illustrates the effects of glacial meltwater flowing out of a glacier.
  • Use a model that illustrates the impact of a glacier moving across a stream channel.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about each topic, visit the following web sites:

J. Harlan Bretz’s theory and the evidence behind it:

Glacial Lake Missoula and the Missoula Floods, USGS
Overview of Glacial Lake Missoula and the catastrophic floods that formed the Channeled Scablands.

Glacial Lake Missoula and the Ice Age Floods, Montana Natural History Center
Examines the formation of Glacial Lake Missoula and the Missoula floods, including the evidence that demonstrates the occurrence of this geologic event.

Glacial Lake Missoula: Inside an Ice Age Lake, NOVA
Examines why no one has found fossils in Glacial Lake Missoula sediments—no petrified wood, no leaves, no bones.

Maps of the Missoula Floods, USGS
Learn about how a constriction northwest of Portland caused water to back up and reach 120-150 meters high in the Portland basin, flooding 200 km south into Willamette Valley. The pdf of this poster contains excellent photographic evidence of sediments and landforms from the flood.

Glacial landforms:

Glacial Landforms from Space, NASA
Describes the ice-generated features associated with glaciers in the Himalayan mountain region. 

Glaciers and Glacial Landforms, NPS
Information on types of glaciers, their major processes, and the landforms they generate. Also contains useful links to monitoring glaciers and permafrost.

Glossary of Glacier Terminology, USGS
Defines various glacial landforms and provides examples of each

How Glaciers Form and Move:

Glaciers and Glacial Landforms, NPS
Information on types of glaciers, their major processes, and the landforms they generate. Also contains useful links to monitoring glaciers and permafrost.

Glacier Photograph Collection, NSIDC
Over 16,000 images from glacial environments around the world.

Glacier Hazards From Space, PBS
Examines the hazards of glaciers to humans, including ice break-offs, avalanches, and melting ice due to global warming.  Uses satellite imagery to help understand concepts.

Bering Glacier – Alaska, NASA Earth Observatory
Satellite images of the Bering Glacier in Southern Alaska, the largest glacier in North America.  Images show how the glacier has been retreating.

Glacier Meltwater and Its Deposits:

The Geology of Mount Desert Island, Maine Geological Survey
Overview of glacial erosion, transportation, and deposition processes.

Glacial Features, The Crevasse Zone
Provides a series of images that demonstrate the effects and features of glaciers as seen on the Juneau Ice field in Alaska.

How Glaciers Alter River Systems:

Pleistocene Glaciers and Geography, University of Wisconsin, Green Bay
Shows the locations of glaciers in the United States and Europe during the last ice age.

Glaciers and Rivers in the Karakoram Mountains, NASA
When valley glaciers surge, it means they flow forward several times faster than usual. Surging glaciers regularly dam rivers and create flood hazards. The floods occur when water pooling up behind the tongue of the advancing glacier suddenly breaks through the natural ice dam and cascades down the gorge.

Section 9: Wind and the Landscape

Learning Outcomes

  • Plan and carry out investigations to test the factors that affect the erosion of sediment by wind.
  • Analyze data to explain the relationship between wind velocity and size of particles moved by wind.
  • Use a model to examine the effects of windblown particles on rocks.
  • Use a model to determine how windblown sediment is deposited.
  • Obtain information about the locations of Earth’s wind-dominated landscapes.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about each topic, visit the following web sites:

Soil Education Materials, USDA
Lesson plans and background on soil topics that can be used in classrooms.

Features of wind-dominated environments:

Wind Erosion at White Sands, NPS
Examines the erosion and depositional features of the White Sands desert in New Mexico.  Includes description and example of a yardang.

Dune Types in the Field, NPS
Examples of dunes found in Great Sand Dunes National Park in Colorado. Includes description and example of a barchans dunes.

Types of Dunes, USGS
Provides examples of the different types of dunes found in wind-dominated environments, including linear (longitudinal) dunes.

Eolian Processes, USGS
Overview of eolian erosion and deposition processes. Includes descriptions of ventifacts, yardangs, barchans dunes, and linear (longitudinal) dunes

Yardangs, USRA
Description of yardangs and why they are of interest to geologists studying the surface of Mars.

Remote Sensing of Arid Lands, USGS
Deserts are remote and inhospitable environments. Being able to monitor them without being in direct physical contact is extremely useful. Remote-sensing instruments in Earth-orbit satellites measure radar, visible light, and infrared radiation. See images take from space of Earth’s arid lands.

Loess deposits:

Loess, Encyclopedia Britannica
Describes the nature of loess, it’s formation, thickness and extent.

Geology of Loess Hills Iowa, USGS
Read how the topography of Iowa is strongly influenced by the deposition of fine-grained sediment blown by the wind.

Eolian Dust and Loess Data Sets, NOAA
List of data sets for further research on loess and eolian dust.

Wind erosion and deposition:

Map of surface Deposits in Eastern and Central United States, USGS
[Search through the records for loess in central and eastern United States.]

Sand on the Move, NPS
Describes the movement of particles by wind and the formation of dunes at White Sands National Park.

Types of sand:

National Park Geology - Death Valley Sand Dunes, NPS
An example of an environment dominated by aridity and the transport of sediment.

Deserts: Geology and Resources, USGS
Examines deserts, where and how they form, types of deserts, desert features, as well as mineral resources in deserts.

Section 10: Coastal Processes

Learning Outcomes

  • Use a model to explain the movement of water by waves.
  • Use a model to examine the effects of waves on shallow beaches.
  • Use a model to examine the effects of waves on irregular coastlines.
  • Use a model to examine the effects of waves on regular coastlines.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about each topic, visit the following web sites:

Plate tectonics and coastal settings:

Geologic Provinces of the United States, USGS, AAPG
The tectonic history of the coasts strongly influences the rock type and structure exposed at the surface, but differing rates of erosion that accompany changing climates can also have profound impacts on the land.

Oceans and Coastal Zones, Tulane University
Describes the factors that influence coastal areas.  Section titled, “Types of Coasts” and “Coastal Evolution” examines east and west coast coastal processes.

Coastal Zones: The Margins of Continents, Penn State
Examines the influence of underlying geology on coastal landforms of the east coast.

Coastal Zones: Tectonics and Coastal Classification, Penn State
Distinguishes between collisional and passive coasts and how they differ.

A Review of Tectonic Events on the Passive Margin of Eastern North America, Rutgers University
The cartoons at the end of this high level paper show how basins developed along the east coast that influence the coasts we see today.

200 Ma - Present Day: East and West Coast Tectonic Development, Scotese Project
This animation shows the plate tectonic and paleogeographic evolution of the North Atlantic region from 200 million years ago to the present-day. North Atlantic Ocean formed as a result of the breakup of the supercontinent of Pangea.

Sea level and how it is measured:

Understanding Sea Level Using Real Data, NOAA
Examines how sea level is measured and the technology used to measure changes in sea level.

Sea Level Basics, Columbia University
Shoreline is the measure of where the land meets the ocean. Learn how sea level is defined locally and globally.

Sea Level Bench Mark Data Sheets, NOAA
Describes the exact locations in coastal states of metal disks placed at the coast against which sea level is measured.

Sea Level and Climate, USGS
Explains what sea level is and how it is closely related to climate.

Frequently Asked Questons, NOAA
Explains what sea level is and how it changes with time.

Earth imaging programs to learn about coastal processes:

Visible Earth, NASA
Search through a catalogue of NASA images and animations.

Earth Science World Image Bank, AGI
Search through over 6,000 photographs of Earth science related images. 

Coastal erosion hazards, visit the following web sites:

Coastal Hazards, NOAA
Examines a variety of natural hazards that can occur along U.S. coasts, including coastal erosion.

Coastal Hazards Portal, USGS
Select between hazards associated with extreme storms, shoreline change, and sea-level rise. Use the interactive map to determine the effect along the U.S. coasts.

FEMA Evaluation of Erosion Hazards at the Coasts, FEMA
This executive summary describes how over the next 60 years, erosion may claim one out of four houses within 500 feet of the U.S. shoreline.

Coastal Processes, NPS
In depth look at coastal processes, including coastal erosion and modifications to the coast to prevent hazards.