Chapter 4: Winds, Oceans, Weather and Climate

Sections in this Chapter

Chapter Challenge
Section 1: Global Wind Patterns and Weather
Section 2: Weather Basics
Section 3: Thunderstorms and Flash Floods
Section 4: Severe Winds and Tornadoes
Section 5: Tropical Storms and Hurricanes
Section 6: The Surface Circulation of the Ocean
Section 7: The Deep Circulation of the Ocean
Section 8: El Niño and Ocean Circulation
Section 9: Present Day Climate in Your Community

Chapter Challenge

In this section you will find materials that support the implementation of EarthComm, Chapter 4: Chapter Challenge.

Explanations of Wind, Oceans, Weather, and Climate

Wind, Windows to the Universe
Describes the factors that create different pressures in the atmosphere which creates the winds around the globe.

General Characteristics of the World’s Oceans, NASA
Reviews the general characteristics of the oceans, including temperature and salinity. Contains several full-color images.

Climate, NOAA
NOAA portal for understanding climate.

Climate vs Weather, NOAA
Revision of important distinctions between climate and weather.

Global Climate Zones, NOAA
Looks at how the world’s climates can be divided into categories resulting in widely used classification systems.

How Winds, Oceans, Weather, and Climate are Related

Air Masses, NOAA
Explains how air masses form, the principle classifications that influence the continental United States, and the formation of fronts between them.

Air Mass Quick Guide, NASA
A visual guide to air masses and imagery used to study them.

Oceans and Climate, NASA
Looks at the connection between the oceans and atmosphere, what ocean circulation is and why it is important, and its effects on climate.

What is the Ekman Spiral? NOAA
Describes the critical movement of ocean water caused by Earth’s rotation.

Descriptions of Severe-Weather Events

Thunderstorms and Lightning…the Underrated Killers!, NOAA
Reviews the hazards associated with thunderstorms, including winds, rain, hail, and lightning. Also reviews the development of thunderstorms, where thunderstorms are likely to occur, and how to remain safe during a thunderstorm.

A Lightning Primer, Global Hydrology and Climate Center, NASA
Reviews characteristics of lightning and looks at the history of lightning research.

Severe Weather, Tornadoes, NOAA
Questions answered about tornadoes. Also disproves several tornado myths, reviews where tornadoes occur, and provides tips on how to stay informed about tornado watches.

Flash Floods and Floods…the Awesome Power!, NOAA
Explains how flash floods occur, presents information on devastating flash floods in the US, defines the different types of floods, and reviews steps for protecting oneself from flood damages.

Hurricanes: The Greatest Storms on Earth, NASA
Describes how hurricanes form, weaken, where they occur, how they are related to climate, and NASA missions to study hurricanes.

Safety Rules for Dealing with Severe-Weather Events

Floods, FEMA
Introduction to floods and flash floods. Includes suggestions for preparing for a flood and facts on the devastation caused by floods.

Preparedness Fast Facts - Thunderstorms, Red Cross
Reviews the hazards associated with thunderstorms, including winds, rain, hail, and lightning and how to remain safe during a thunderstorm.

Thunderstorm and Camping Safety, Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorology
Includes tips on protecting oneself from lightning associated with thunderstorms while in the outdoors hiking or camping.

Are You Ready? – Tornadoes, FEMA
Explains the difference between a tornado watch and warning, how to recognize tornado dangers, and tips for safety before, during, and after a tornado.

Preparedness Fast Facts – Hurricanes, American Red Cross
Provides suggestions for preparing against the dangers of a hurricane.

Section 1: Global Wind Patterns and Weather

Learning Outcomes

Analyze data on world maps to identify patterns in incoming solar radiation, air temperature range, and air pressure at Earth’s surface.
Use a model to explain the factors that affect the global movement of air in Earth’s atmosphere.
Obtain information about global wind belts and patterns of circulation in Earth’s atmosphere.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about each topic, visit the following web sites:

Aura satellite

Aura, NASA
The official NASA mission website for the Aura spacecraft. Overview of the Aura mission and how it will help scientists to monitor pollution production and transport around the world.

Spacecraft and Instruments, NASA
Description of the space craft and instruments.

NASA’s Aura: New Eye for Clean Air, Global Fire Monitoring Center
Provides background context for some of the mission objectives.

Pressure and Wind

Origin of Wind, NOAA
Lean how in meteorology wind is considered in terms of the horizontal speed and direction.

Wind, Windows to the Universe NESTA
Describes the factors that create different pressures in the atmosphere which creates the winds around the globe.

Global Wind Patterns

Global Wind Patterns, NASA
A portrait from a simulation showing global wind patterns.

Global Wind Patterns Visualization, NASA
Simulation compiled from a series of animations showing global wind patterns at two different levels in the atmosphere.

Surface Ocean Currents, NOAA
Explains the formation, movement, and coupling of Earth’s trade winds with the oceans.

Coriolis Effect

Coriolis Effect, NOAA
Examines the impact of the Coriolis effect on the movement of air between the Earth’s equator and poles.

Coriolis Effect - the Physics, Ohio State Univ.
Provides an explanation of the detailed physics needed to understand and explain the Coriolis effect.

Jet Stream

The Jet Stream, NOAA
Describes the factors that cause air to flow in the Earth’s jet streams.

Why Does the Jet Stream Wander?, Scientific American
Article describes both the causes of the stream and why its path changes over time.

Polar Jet Steam Pattern Visualization, NASA
Simulation compiled from a series of animations showing the troughs and ridges of the polar jet stream.

Section 2: Weather Basics

Learning Outcomes

Carry out investigations to explain the effects of different temperatures on the density of a volume of air.
Analyze data on a map of the United States to identify regional air masses.
Carry out an investigation that measures the elements that make up weather.
Obtain information about the effects that result from the interaction of different types of air masses.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about this topic, visit the following web sites:

Tracking weather events over time using a weather map:

Weather Forecast, National Weather Service
Map of the United States showing current weather forecasts. Click on your region for a more specific forecast.

Locate Weather Observation Station Record, NOAA
Search for the weather station nearest to your community. Two methods are available, a data search tool or an interactive map.

Local Climate Data by City, Street or Zip Code, NOAA
Search for current and past conditions and forecasts by location. This also includes links to radar pictures, river and lake data.

American Association of State Climatologists, AASC
State climatologists deliver science-based climate services at the state and local levels. Scroll down and click on your state to identify the state climatologist.

How and Why Warm Air Rises:

Cloud Development and Stability, UCAR
Describes mechanisms that cause air to rise and form clouds. Also describes the outcome when air is also forced upward at areas of low pressure or when two airmasses collide.

Cloud Development, National Weather Service
Describe cloud formation, including a video. In addition to surface heating, also describes the effects of topography, frontal contact, convergence, and turbulence on uplift.

Air Masses and Fronts:

Air Masses, NOAA
Explains how air masses form, the principle classifications that influence the continental United States, and the formation of fronts between them.

Air Masses and Front, National Wildfire Coordinating Group
Scroll down to examine the characteristics of air masses, the lifting or rising of an air mass, air mass classification, and the direction of movement of major air masses.

How Clouds Form:

Cloud Formation, UK Met Office
Describes cloud formation, including a video. In addition to surface heating, also describes the effects of topography, frontal contact, convergence, and turbulence on uplift.

The Importance of Understanding Clouds, NASA
Describe how clouds are an important regular of Earth’s temperature.

Clouds Versus Fog, NOAA
Reviews how and where clouds typically form. Includes some graphics and additional links to help understand clouds.

Types of Clouds:

10 Basic Clouds, NOAA
Examines the classification system for classifying clouds. Provides example pictures of each type.

Cloud Types, Windows to the Universe NESTA
Click on the cloud groups or cloud type of interest to view an image and relevant text.

Weather and the Water Cycle:

The Water Cycle, NASA
Examines the role of water in the Earth system, including elements of weather.

Section 3: Thunderstorms and Flash Floods

Learning Outcomes

Analyze data to explain the relationship between the frequency of thunderstorms and topography.
Analyze data on a topographic map to determine areas of a drainage basin at risk for flooding.
Analyze data on a local topographic map to explain the vulnerability of your community to flooding.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about each topic, visit the following web sites:

Severe weather events in your community

National Weather Service Warnings and Forecasts, NOAA/NWS
Click on your state to see if there are any current watches, warnings, or advisories for your community.

Severe Weather Events Archive, NOAA
Click on the “Index of Events” tab to view a list of severe thunderstorm events that have occurred in the U.S. since 1950.

Weather Hazard Statistics, National Centers for Environmental Information
Select national or state data for data showing the impacts of different weather hazards.

Development of a Thunderstorm

Information about Thunderstorms, NOAA
Thunderstorm basics and facts about the thunderstorm life cycle.

Thunderstorms, UCAR
Damaging wind from thunderstorms is much more common than damage from tornadoes. Learn about wind related processes.

Floods

River Conditions, NOAA
Current listing of floods in the United States.

Vizualising Past Floods Events and their Costs, FEMA
An interactive data tool to allow you to better understand your historical flood risk and potential flood-related costs.

Flooding, USGS
Iinformation about active and recent events tracked by the USGS National Floods Specialist.

Flood Hazards and Terms, Univ. Wisconsin
Distinguish between primary and secondary hazards associated with flooding.

Lightning and Thunder

A Lightning Primer, Global Hydrology and Climate Center, NASA
Reviews characteristics of lightning and looks at the history of lightning research.

Weather Safety: Lightning, NOAA
Explains the dangers associated with lightning and ways to avoid thunderstorm threats.

Preparedness Fast Facts - Thunderstorms, Red Cross
Reviews the hazards associated with thunderstorms, including winds, rain, hail, and lightning and how to remain safe during a thunderstorm.

Lightning Safety Tips

National Lightning Safety Institute, NLSI
Provides personal as well as structural lightning safety tips.

Section 4: Severe Winds and Tornadoes

Learning Outcomes

Analyze and interpret data to explain the relationship between tornado and thunderstorm distribution across the United States.
Analyze data to explain the relationship between tornado frequency and time of year.
Use a model that illustrates the direction of flow of downburst winds.
Obtain information about the hazards posed by tornadoes and downbursts.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about each topic, visit the following web sites:

Cyclone circulation:

Getting Around the Coriolis Force, Van Domelen, D.J., The Ohio State University
Reviews the basic physics behind the Coriolis effect, how the Coriolis effect influences the operation of the atmosphere and oceans, and why the Coriolis effect is only relevant on certain (larger) scales.

Wind shear and airplanes:

Special Report: Delta Air Lines Flight 191, NWS
Summarizes the circumstances and probable cause of the crash of Delta Airlines Flight 191 (L-1011).

Unaware That They Have Encountered a Microburst, DC-9 Flight Crew Executes Standard Go-around: Aircraft Flies Into Terrain, Flight Safety Foundation
Examines the circumstances surrounding the crash of a USAir DC-9 in Charlotte, North Carolina in 1994

Escape Through Time – Wind Shear, NOVA Online
Briefly reviews the dangers caused by downbursts to airplanes. Discusses the steps that have been taken to reduce the number of incidents involving microbursts and planes.

Downbursts and Tornadoes:

The Online Tornado FAQ, NOAA
Reviews information related to tornadoes, including: what tornadoes are, how they form, how they move, and how they are defined. Includes links within the text which open pages with tornado related images.

Severe Weather, NOAA
Find out when and where there is a risk of severe weather from the Storm Prediction Center.

U.S. Tornado Data, NOAA
Includes data (maps) of tornado occurrences by state, grouped according to tornado size.

U.S. Tornado History FAQ, NOAA
Answers to a variety of questions about formation, sizes, duration, and impacts.

Downbursts, NOAA
Explains what causes downbursts, how they differ from tornadoes, and why they can be dangerous for airplanes.

This Is Why You Don’t Want to Fly into a Microburst, Smithsonian
Video showing why microbursts are severe threats to airplane safety.

Tornado Safety Tips:

Are You Ready? – Tornadoes, NWS
Explains the difference between a tornado watch and warning, how to recognize tornado dangers, and tips for safety before, during, and after a tornado.

Tornado Safety, NOAA
Reviews the basic steps for tornado safety. Click on links to view tornado and damage images.

Tornado Preparedness Tips for School Administrators, NOAA
Looks specifically at steps schools should take to assure student safety during a tornado, including finding shelter and what to do after the tornado.

Thunderstorm and Camping Safety, Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorology
Includes tips on protecting oneself from tornadoes associated with thunderstorms while in the outdoors hiking or camping.

Movies about tornadoes include:

Twister (1996)
Storm Chasers: Revenge of the Twister (1998)
Night of the Twisters (1996)
Tornado! (1996)
Into the Storm (2014)
Tornado! (1996)
13 Minutes (2021)
Supercell (2023)
Twisters (2024)

Section 5: Tropical Storms and Hurricanes

Learning Outcomes

Analyze and interpret data to explain where in the United States hurricanes occur.
Analyze data to explain the relationship between hurricane frequency and time of year.
Analyze data to explain how a hurricane’s strength changes as it moves.
Obtain information about the hazards posed by hurricanes.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about each topic, visit the following websites:

Hurricane preparedness in specific states:

Alabama

Alabama Emergency Preparedness, State of Alabama Emergency Management Agency
Information on the state organization that manages the preparedness, response, and recovery to natural disasters, including hurricanes.

Past Hurricanes in Alabama
Potential threats from hurricanes include powerful winds, heavy rainfall, storm surges, coastal and inland flooding, rip currents, tornadoes, and landslides.

Georgia

Past Hurricanes in Georgia, Georgia Emergency Management & Homeland Security Agency
Information on the state organization that manages the preparedness, response, and recovery to natural disasters, including hurricanes.

Hurricane Preparedness, Georgia Emergency Management Agency
Information about the hurricane history of Georgia, hurricane hazards in Georgia, and useful information about how to be ready to respond to a hurricane the next time one threatens Georgia.

Texas

Hurricanes in TX, Texas Division of Emergency Management
Information on the state organization that manages the preparedness, response, and recovery to natural disasters, including hurricanes.

Hurricane Preparedness, Texas Division of Emergency Management
Information about the hurricane hazards in Texas, evacuation routes, and suggestions for how to be ready to respond to a hurricane.

Florida

Florida Division of Emergency Management Portal with Information on the state organization that manages the preparedness, response, and recovery to natural disasters, including hurricanes.

Florida Hazards Watch – Hurricanes, Florida Division of Emergency Management
Describes hurricane hazards, what to do when hurricane watches and warnings are issued, and how to prepare for a hurricane.

North Carolina

Past Disasters in NC, NC Division of Emergency Management
Information on the state organization that manages the preparedness, response, and recovery to natural disasters, including hurricanes.

Hurricanes, NC Division of Emergency Management
Provides information about ways in which to prepare for a hurricane. Open tabs to learn about historic events and gather more information.
Hurricane monitoring:

National Hurricane Center Virtual Tour, NOAA
Virtual tour of NOAA’s National Hurricane Center.

Hurricanes

Hurricanes: The Greatest Storms on Earth, NASA
Describes how hurricanes form, weaken, where they occur, how they are related to climate, and NASA missions to study hurricanes.

Hurricanes, Typhoons and Cyclones, UCAR
Answers questions about how hurricanes form, where they are found, damage from hurricanes, hurricane intensity, hurricane structure, and tracking.

Hurricane Return Periods, NOAA
Hurricane return periods are the frequency at which a certain intensity of hurricane can be expected within a given distance of a given location. Learn about the likelihood of repeat events.

Hurricane Katrina

Hurricane Katrina, NOAA
Provides satellite images and photos of Hurricane Katrina. Examines the response to the hurricane and the damage it caused.

Hurricane Preparedness

Preparedness Fast Facts – Hurricanes, American Red Cross
Provides suggestions for preparing against the dangers of a hurricane.

Learn About Hurricanes, Ready.gov
Describes how hurricanes form, where they are common, and how hurricane categories are determined.

How to Prepare for a Hurricane, FEMA
Comprehensive guide about warnings, actions, and what to do after landfall. Contains a useful checklist and quiz.

Section 6: The Surface Circulation of the Ocean

Learning Outcomes

Analyze data to determine the direction and rate of flow of ocean surface currents in the North Pacific Ocean.
Analyze and interpret data to explain the relationship between global patterns of surface winds and ocean surface currents.
Obtain information about the role of ocean surface currents in Earth’s global climate system.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about each topic, visit the following websites:

The relationship between surface currents and climate:

Ocean and Climate, NASA
Looks at the connection between the oceans and atmosphere, what ocean circulation is and why it is important, and its effects on climate.

Temperature of the Gulf Stream, NASA
Explains how the Gulf Stream current plays an extremely important role in regulating global climate. Includes a high-resolution satellite image.

Boundary Currents, NOAA
Examines the circulation of gyres. Describes the Gulf Stream and its effects on climate along the North American as well as European coasts.

Wind Driven Surface Currents: Ring, NASA
Satellite images show that the ocean is turbulent in much the same way that the atmosphere is turbulent. For example, relatively swift western boundary currents can spawn large turbulent rotating warm-core and cold-core eddies, also known as rings.

Seasonal upwelling along the west coast of North America:

What is Upwelling?, NOAA
Find out about coastal upwelling and how it affects the biosphere.

Coastal Upwelling Indices, Pacific Fisheries Environmental Laboratory, Data.gov
Provides data on upwelling that can be sorted and graphed using tools on this site.

Surface Currents:

Using Flotsam to Study Ocean Currents, NASA
Contains information regarding the spill of shoes and rubber duckies in the Pacific that students investigate in Section 6, specifically how the spill led to a greater understanding of ocean circulation patterns.

NASA Views Our Perpetual Ocean, NASA
Animation of ocean surface currents from NASA satellites. Watch how bigger currents like the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean and the Kuroshio in the Pacific carry warm waters across thousands of miles.

Ocean Currents and Climate, American Institute of Physics
Covers the effect of wind stress on the water surface, the impact of the Coriolis effect on surface current patterns, and continent interference. Includes text and images to explain the major ocean gyres, transverse currents, western and eastern boundary, and the effect of plate tectonics on surface circulation.

OSCAR - Surface Current Modeling, ESR/NASA
Scroll down to read about how scientists use a grid of buoys to model small scale features of ocean currents to improve the resolution of thier models.

Upwelling:

What is Upwelling?, NOAA
Find out about coastal upwelling and how it affects the biosphere.

Effect of Upwelling, NOAA
Examines upwelling and two important effects on coastal ecosystems and marine sanctuaries on the Pacific coast.

Major upwelling areas along the world’s coasts, NOAA
Image that highlights major upwelling areas along the world’s coasts.

Downwelling Background, NOAA
Describes downwelling caused as winds converge toward some region.

Section 7: The Deep Circulation of the Ocean

Learning Outcomes

Use a model to explain the effects of temperature on ocean circulation.
Use a model to explain how salinity affects mixing in the oceans.
Use a model to describe how convection cells are related to deep ocean circulation.
Analyze data on world maps to identify patterns in sea surface temperature and ocean salinity.

Inquiring Further

To investigate density differences, each student will need:

Water
Salt
3 eggs

To learn more about each topic, visit the following websites:

How volcanic eruptions at divergent boundaries affect deep ocean currents:

Submarine Volcanoes, Volcano World
[Reviews the basics of plate tectonics and examines closely submarine volcanoes at divergent and convergent boundaries and hot spots. The site has good images of underwater lava flows as well as images of the organisms that live near these submarine volcanoes.]

Deep Ocean Volcanoes, NOAA
Scientists believe that 80 percent of the volcanic eruptions on Earth take place in the ocean. Watch video of the deepest ocean eruption on record.

Submarine Volcanoes, Ridges, and Vents, USGS
General overview of submarine volcanic eruptions as well as information about specific underwater volcanoes including the volcanoes of the Juan de Fuca ridge in the Pacific, Kavachi of the Solomon Islands, Kick ‘Em Jenny of the West Indies, the Loihi Seamount of Hawaii, and Surtsey and the Vestmannmaeyjar volcanics of Iceland.

Activity Reports an example from West Mata, SI Global Volcanism Program
West Mata is a submarine volcano 200 km SW of Samoa in the New Zealand to Fiji volcanic region. This report shows images of eruptions of two vents recorded by Jason 2, the remotely operated vehicle used to explore the sea floor.

Remotely Operated Vehicle Jason/Medea, WHOI
Describes two ROVs used to study the sea floor. Follow links to find out about the diverse fleet of underwater vehicles, including Alvin, Jason, and Sentry. How atmospheric circulation affects deep ocean circulation, visit the following web site:

Ocean Circulation, Water Encyclopedia
Examines surface currents, deep ocean currents, and their connection to atmospheric circulation.

Surface and Deep Ocean Circulation, Berkeley
High level PowerPoint explains circulation and its relationship with the distribution of heat on Earth.

How the rotation of the Earth affects deep ocean circulation:

“Current” Events – Forces and Pressure on Currents, Texas A&M University
Considers the effects of Earth’s rotation on ocean circulation.

Science on a Sphere - Ocean Currents, NOAA
An overlay of ocean currents, taken from the ocean circulation dataset. How the biosphere is affected by deep ocean circulation:

Exploring the deep ocean floor: Hot springs and strange creatures, USGS
Takes a look at some of the organisms which live on the ocean floor. Includes color photos.

Dive and Discover: Expeditions to the Seafloor, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Examines the work of scientists—geologists, chemists and biologists—who are exploring the seafloor and making new deep-sea discoveries. Expedition 2 in particular has some information about life at sea vents.

Seawater Temperature, Salinity, and Density:

Salinity and Deep Ocean Currents, My NASA Data
Lessons on sea surface salinity and its importance to the water cycle and ocean circulation.

Sea Surface Temperature, NASA
Overview of sea surface temperature and its importance to climate.

Density of Ocean Water, Windows to the Universe
Examines how the density of ocean water changes with depth.

Temperature of Ocean Water, Windows to the Universe
Examines how the temperature of ocean water changes with depth.

Deep Ocean Circulation:

Thermohaline Circulation, NOAA
Describes in a simple way the effects of temperature on density and the initiation of downward movement in the oceans.

Deep Ocean Currents, NOAA
Learn how bottom currents scour and sort sediments, thus affecting what kind of bottom develops in an area.

The Global Ocean Conveyor Belt, NOAA
Describes the general circulation pattern of the Earth’s oceans.

Thermohaline Circulation: The Global Ocean Conveyor, Windows to the Universe
Examines the large-scale pattern in which seawater moves around the global ocean.

Section 8: El Niño and Ocean Circulation

Learning Outcomes

Analyze data by comparing and contrasting a data set of sea surface temperatures during a normal year with a data set of an El Niño year.
Interpret data on maps of the Pacific Ocean to explain how sea surface temperatures vary during an El Niño event.
Analyze and interpret data from a remote-sensing satellite to determine the extent and duration of the 1997–1998 El Niño event.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about each topic, visit the following websites:

Technology used to study oceanic-atmospheric interactions:

Ocean Surface Topography From Space, NASA
Understand how continuous data from satellites like TOPEX/Poseidon help scientists understand and foresee the effects of the changing oceans on climate and on catastrophic climate events such as El Niño.

TOPEX/Poseidon Educational Outreach, NASA Learn more about the TOPEX/Poseidon satellite, how it collects data, and what has been learned from this important mission.

TAO Project, NOAA
Learn more about the Tropical Atmosphere Ocean Project, how it collects data, and what has been learned.

TOGA-TAO and the 1991-93 El Niño-Southern Oscillation Event, McPhaden, M.J., NOAA/PMEL
Examines data collected by the TOGA-TAO program. Includes color data images.

La Niña, visit the following web sites:

What is La Niña?, NWS
Includes links to general La Niña information, such as climate data for past La Niña events, forecasts, and the impacts of La Niña.

La Niña FAQs, NOAA
Includes color animations comparing La Niña, El Niño, and “normal” conditions, a review of the impacts that La Niña has had on the global climate, and links to further information.

El Niño/La Niña Home, NOAA
Includes links to information on ENSO forecasts, an “expert assessment” (updated weekly), ENSO figures (updated weekly), and a list of FAQ. Also includes an online tutorial which contains numerous color images.

El Niño and non- El Niño Conditions:

El Niño Theme Page, NOAA
Contains links to cover a wide range of topics, including definitions of El Niño and La Niña, impacts of El Niño, predicting El Niño, 3-D animations of El Niño temperatures, and information on finding El Niño data.

NOAA’s El Niño Page, NOAA
Contains an image of current sea-surface temperature anomalies which is updated regularly. Site also contains links to El Niño images and information, including a list of El Niño-related web sites.

Past El Niño and La Niña Events, Golden Gate Weather Service
ENSO events differ in their strength, coverage, and seasonality, there isn’t unanimous agreement on what constitutes and ENSO event. NOAA contains a list of years broadly agreed on by researchers.

The El Niño of 2015-2016, United Nations
Animation during an El Nino event about what to expect.

The Southern Oscillation:

El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO), NOAA
Information on the science behind ENSO, current ocean/atmosphere conditions, impacts of ENSO on climate, forecasts, current research, and links to educational resources.

The Equatorial Pacific and El Niño:

The Story of El Niño - Science on a Sphere, NOAA
Learn about this phenomenon and its impacts in this movie created by the Aquarium of the Pacific.

Impacts, Predictions, and Regional Benefits, NOAA
Further information on the impacts of El Niño, such as El Niño and tornado occurrences, El Niño and hurricane frequency, coral reef bleaching, El Niño and marine fish and birds, and more.

El Niño and La Niña : Effect on Phytoplankton and Fish- Science on a Sphere, NOAA
Learn how satellite data are being used to understand fish distributions and why some fisheries suddenly collapse.

El Niño Sea-Level Rise Wreaks Havoc in California’s San Fransico Bay Region, USGS
Looks at the impact of the 1997-1998 El Niño event on the Bay area. Site includes damage photos, sea level data, upwelling images, and an explanation of Kelvin waves and their impact.

Section 9: Present Day Climate in Your Community

Learning Outcomes

Analyze and interpret data to describe the climate of your community.
Analyze and interpret data to compare the climate of your community with the climate of a different community.
Plan and carry out an investigation to explain how the rates of cooling and heating of soil or rock and water can affect climate.

Inquiring Further

To learn more about each topic, visit the following web sites:

Weather systems in the United States:

National Weather Service Climate Services, NOAA
Examine average weather conditions for your community.

NOAA In Your State and Territory, NOAA
Examine NOAA’s weather programs and activities in your state.

Regional Climate Maps, Weekly, Monthly, 3 Month 1 Year, NOAA
NOAA’s maps include data on temperature, precipitation, winds, and archives of historic patterns.

Jet streams:

The Jet Stream, North Carolina Climate Office
Describes the flow of the jet streams and provides graphics that show the jet streams in relation to global wind belts.

Jet Steam, University of Illinois
Overview of the jet stream and how it impacts weather systems.

Understanding Winds, Jet Streams, USA Today
Scroll down to the “Understanding Winds, Jet Streams” section of this online newspaper to investigate the science behind the jet stream.

Feb 2018: Soaring Temperatures and the Jet Stream?, NOAA
Describes how on two days in late February 2018, temperatures soared across the eastern United States to to those of early summer. How was extreme meandering of the jet stream involved? Find out.

Factors Affecting Climate:

Factors Affecting Climate, UK Environmental Change Network
Offers information on geographic factors affecting climate, including both natural and human factors. Following page looks at environmental change in the UK.

U.S. Climate Divisions, NOAA
Looks at how the US is divided into climate divisions.

Global Climate Zones, National Geographic
Looks at how the world’s climates can be divided into categories resulting in widely used classification systems.

2023 Global Climate Report, NCEI/NOAA
Looks at how the world’s climate and weather events reached extreme values across the globe.

Factors Affecting Arctic Weather and Climate, The National Snow and Ice Data Center
Discusses the factors affecting the cryosphere.

Elevation and Geographic Features:

Effects of Climate Change on High Elevations, Eos
Discover the effects of elevation on Colorado’s climate.

The High and Lows of Climate, NOAA
Introduces the influence of topography on climate. Scroll over a base map to see precipitation and topography. Links to stories on rain shadows and other topographic topics.

Elevation and Climate, Florida Atlantic University
Explore the British island, Isle of Man, and learn what role its geography has in creating its mild climate.

Global Climate:

Global Climate Change, NASA
Comprehensive portal with scientific news bulletins about climate related science and information on evidence, causes, effects, and consensus about climate change.

Climate Variability, UCAR
Learn about the factors affecting the world’s climate system (i.e., natural and anthropogenic changes) and how these can also influence its social and economic well-being.

Environment and Global Climate Change, USAID
Learn how USAID attempts to help countries develop sustainably in regions worst hit by environmental stresses caused by climatic variability.